Hourly-Enlightenment-ajk*$0#
1,32,32,his,eng,20210728,20211232,5,Hourly: Age of Enlightenment
ama,
eng,
0022 Table of Contents 
0032 Introduction 
003h In the simplest terms possible, the Enlightenment was born of the idea that all human beings share the same basic needs and as such should enjoy the same rights and privileges.
003h The Enlightenment can be understood as a direct challenge to the status quo at a time when intolerant and superstitious religious beliefs dominated most people’s lives.
003h Most historians agree that the Enlightenment began around the 1680s and lasted until the early 1800s.
003h For some historians, the Enlightenment was the direct result of the Renaissance and the Reformation.
0052 The Great Thinkers of the Enlightenment 
005h Montesquieu (1689-1755), a French man of letters who wrote the iconic Spirit of the Laws in 1748, a text often cited as representing the spirit of both the American and French revolutions. Trained as a lawyer, Montesquieu's theory of the separation of powers—into executive, legislative, and judicial, each of which are separate from each other
005h Voltaire (1694-1778) who used his literary skill to write plays, poems, novels, essays, and reams of letters that expressed his philosophical beliefs to the masses. Voltaire was extremely critical of the dogmatic nature of the Catholic Church and constantly campaigned for the separation of the French state and church.
006h Rousseau (1712-1778), a philosopher, writer, and composer whose novel Emilie, or On Education was instrumental in educational reform in France.
006h Diderot (1713-1784) The Encyclopédie was a 35-volume work, created between 1751 and 1772, 
Marquis de Condorcet (1742-1794),
All five of these French philosophes shared a common goal: to develop a society based on reason, natural law, and scientific endeavor,
006h Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was a contemporary of Francis Bacon and considered to be the father of modern western philosophy. Descartes’ influence on the Enlightenment was profound. "I think, therefore I am."
007h The English - Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was a member of the English aristocracy, a philosopher, a writer, a statesman, and a scientist.
Bacon developed the inductive method of scientific inquiry.
007h Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was a philosopher and political theorist whose text published in 1651, Leviathan, is credited with jolting the English Enlightenment into being.
007h John Locke (1632-1704) began his career as an Oxford academic, but in 1667, Locke became personal secretary and
008h The Scots – Francis Hutcheson, Adam Smith, and John Hume
A student of Hutcheson, Adam Smith (1723-1790) was the founder of liberal economic theory. In 1776, Smith published Wealth of Nations,
008h David Hume (1711-1776), contributed to the Enlightenment in ways which led to a lasting impact on Western philosophy as a whole.
008h David Hume (1711-1776), contributed to the Enlightenment in ways which led to a lasting impact on Western philosophy as a whole.
008h David Hume (1711-1776), contributed to the Enlightenment in ways which led to a lasting impact on Western philosophy as a whole.
009h Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) remains one of the most well-known western philosophers of all time. Known as a skeptic philosopher, Kant built on David Hume’s theories, attempting to reconcile rationalism and religious belief.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) remains one of the most well-known western philosophers of all time. Known as a skeptic philosopher, Kant built on David Hume’s theories, attempting to reconcile rationalism and religious belief.
008h His key text, Critique of Pure Reason (1781), directly challenged other enlightenment philosophers and argued that all human beings beings are born with innate experiences that inform their perspective on the world. Kant theorized that nothing can be known, only perceived through the senses and perspective of the individual, and as such pure reason is an invalid approach to thought.
009b 20210728 =0+9 28% Hourly-Enlightenment 32
0102 Engaging With Religion 
010h Some Enlightenment philosophers were openly against religion in all its forms. Revolutionary atheists, these philosophers saw all religion as delusion
0103 The Law of Nature or Natural Law
010h Before the Enlightenment movement took hold, the majority of academics were theologians. The study of God was at the center of intellectual inquiry; theology was considered the mother of sciences.
010h all study of morals, psychology, law, justice, and epistemology were carried out as an extension of the study of God.
011h The trouble was that Christians also agreed to the law of nature, a code of behavior defined by God that applied to all human beings, regardless of whether they were Christians or not. This natural law was a duty that all human beings owed to the God that had created them, although obedience to natural law would not bring about their salvation—only belief in the revelation could secure that. These two spheres, the study of God and his revelation and the study of natural, or human, sciences, had up until the seventeenth century been completely intertwined.
011h Painstakingly reading, re-reading, and analyzing a small number of key texts, these theologian scholars borrowed so much from the work of Aristotle he became known simply as The Philosopher.
011h Galileo was forced to refute his claim to avoid being burned at the stake as a heretic, and yet his discovery was correct—he later became the most celebrated champion of this new science.
0113 Wars of Religion and Reformation
012h The French Wars of Religion (between 1562 and 1598), The English Civil War (1642-1651), and the Eighty Years War between Spain and the Netherlands (1568-1648) divided Europe along the lines of faith and turned the whole continent into an on-off killing field. The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) that enveloped the majority of central and eastern Europe, and killed millions, was the most devastating of these conflicts.
012h The French Wars of Religion (between 1562 and 1598), The English Civil War (1642-1651), and the Eighty Years War between Spain and the Netherlands (1568-1648) divided Europe along the lines of faith and turned the whole continent into an on-off killing field. The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) that enveloped the majority of central and eastern Europe, and killed millions, was the most devastating of these conflicts.
012h John Locke carried out what he deemed to be an "unprejudiced examination" of the Bible and first promoted the idea of separation of church and state. Locke argued that the state had no authority when it came to individual conscience and that a rational society must be responsible for their own moral code.
0123 Enlightenment Histories of Religion
0152 Morality in the Age of Enlightenment 
015h Kant argued that individual moral autonomy provided the basis for the public application of reason and insisted that this idea alone defined Enlightenment.
016h According to Kant, the senses played a vital role in acquiring knowledge, but that knowledge must then be interpreted by the mind’s unique internal patterns. These patterns are a part of our individuality and are in existence before we have any sensory experience.
016h Morals, religion, truth, beauty; these things existed beyond the material world and could not be proven to exist, but were known to human beings through pure reason. Pure reason was, for Kant, the highest form of human endeavor, built into human nature.
017h Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (1781) contained the majority of his ideas, while his later essays Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785) and Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose (1784) focused on his idea of the "categorical imperative." 
0182 Society in the Age of Enlightenment 
018h “The source of every crime, is some defect of the understanding; or some error in reasoning; or some sudden force of the passions.” —Thomas Hobbes
018h Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations offers the most influential theory of social progress, classifying progress into four stages: hunting, pastoral, agricultural, and commercial. Smith argued that society progressed from one mode of living to another through the “natural progress of opulence,” or the quest for material wealth.
018h Language was also explored as a means of progress. It had previously been believed that language was merely one of God’s gifts to man, but some historians looked at language acquisition and development as a key component of the evolution of our species.
019h abolition of slavery in England. In 1774, but it took another three decades before slavery was abolished in the British colonies.
0212 Science and Political Economy in the Age of Enlightenment 
021h “Man is an animal that makes bargains: no other animal does this—no dog exchanges bones with another.” —Adam Smith
021h Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations represented a landmark in economics and placed political economy at the heart of Enlightenment thought.
021h Smith insisted that the wealth of a nation must be measured by its per capita income; to be a truly commercial, modern society, that figure must constantly increase.
023h In England, the emergence of the coffee house was pivotal to this new public sphere. The first coffee houses emerged in England and the trend soon spread into Paris and across Europe until, in the late eighteenth century, establishments where people In England, the emergence of the coffee house was pivotal to this new public sphere. The first coffee houses emerged in England and the trend soon spread into Paris and across Europe until, in the late eighteenth century, establishments where people people met to drink coffee became commonplace.
0232 The Enlightenment and the Public Print 
023h The printing press, invented in the year 1440, spread across Europe over the course of the next several decades.
0252 Culture and the Press 
025w juggernaut /ˈjəɡərˌnôt/ I. noun a huge, powerful, and overwhelming force or institution • a juggernaut of secular and commercial culture. – origin mid 19th cent.: extension of Juggernaut. Juggernaut /ˈjəɡərˌnôt/ old-fashioned name for Jagannatha.
026h Authorship became an important part of print culture—for the first time the author’s name became the focal point of the book cover,
028h Public opinion began to play a pivotal role in politics, and Enlightenment philosophers led the way in informing and empowering public opinion to conform with their ideas on the progress of society.
0292 Conclusion
029h While for some the Enlightenment was the precursor to the scientific revolution and the glories of modernity, for others it was the precursor to modern imperialism and racism.
029h Few other movements in history have been the subject of as much study, debate, and writing as the Enlightenment. What the Enlightenment was and why it still matters today preoccupies the intellectual life of many and is a subject this book has tried to illuminate for readers today.
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#eng Giant pygmy
This book is really a Giant pygmy of knowledge. Quite exceptionally well-written.  The text contains no unnecessary words, but such a myriad of succinct expressions and sfatements that it made me a criminal, breaking the severe prohibition of copying the text by any means. I always make notes by copying text highlights to my Notes. Usually one per several pages, but in this case several on one page, as there were so many golden grains summarizing known and unknown characterizations of this importat historical period of human civilization. 
Keenly following Tokyo Olympics, I thought that I could at the same time read this easily readable text as tidbits in between. No way! First I stopped readig and continued Olympics, then stopped Olympics and continued this Hourly, as I have had to note the author of the book. Not revealing name, but asking in first person a short review, which I would anyway have submitted followed by the rating of five stars.
#rus Гигантский карликовый
Эта книга действительно является гигантским пигмеем знаний. Очень хорошо написано. В тексте нет лишних слов, но есть такое множество лаконичных выражений и высказываний, что это сделало меня преступником, нарушив строгий запрет на копирование текста любыми средствами. Я всегда делаю заметки, копируя выделение текста в свои заметки. Обычно по одной на нескольких страницах, но в данном случае по несколько на одной странице, так как было так много золотых зерен, суммирующих известные и неизвестные характеристики этого важного исторического периода человеческой цивилизации.
Внимательно следя за Олимпийскими играми в Токио, я подумал, что в то же время могу прочитать этот легко читаемый текст как лакомые кусочки между ними. Ни за что! Сначала я перестал читать и продолжил Олимпийские игры, затем остановил Олимпийские игры и продолжил их Hourly, как я должен был отметить автора книги. Не раскрывая имени, но прошая в первом лице небольшой обзор, который я бы в любом случае отправил с оценкой в пять звезд.
#fin Jättiläinen kääpiö
Tämä kirja on todella jättimäinen kääpiö tietoa. Aivan poikkeuksellisen hyvin kirjoitettu. Teksti ei sisällä tarpeettomia sanoja, mutta niin lukemattomia ytimekkäitä ilmaisuja ja täydennyksiä, että se teki minusta rikollisen ja rikoin ankaraa kieltoa kopioida tekstiä millään tavalla. Teen aina muistiinpanoja kopioimalla tekstikohtia Muistiinpanoihini. Yleensä yksi useita sivuja kohti, mutta tässä tapauksessa useita yhdellä sivulla, koska siellä oli niin paljon kultaisia jyviä, jotka tiivistivät tunnetut ja tuntemattomat luonnokset tälle historialliselle ihmissivilisaation ajalle.
Innokkaasti Tokion olympialaisia seuraten ajattelin voivani samalla lukea tämän helposti luettavan tekstin välipalana. Ei todellakaan! Ensin lopetin lukemisen ja jatkoin olympialaisia, lopetin sitten olympialaiset ja jatkoin tätä Hourlya, kuten minun on täytynyt merkitä kirjan kirjoittaja. Ei paljasta nimeään, mutta pyytää ensimmäisessä persoonassa lyhyttä arvostelua, jonka olisin joka tapauksessa toimittanut, ja sen mukana viiden tähden luokituksen.
#swe Jättepygmé
Den här boken är verkligen en jättepygmé av kunskap. Alldeles exceptionellt välskriven. Texten innehåller inga onödiga ord, utan en sådan myriad av kortfattade uttryck och statements att det gjorde mig till en kriminell, vilket bryter mot det stränga förbudet att kopiera texten på något sätt. Jag gör alltid anteckningar genom att kopiera texthöjdpunkter till mina anteckningar. Vanligtvis en per flera sidor, men i det här fallet flera på en sida, eftersom det fanns så många gyllene korn som sammanfattar kända och okända karaktäriseringar av denna viktiga historiska period av mänsklig civilisation.
Efter att ha följt de olympiska spelen i Tokyo tänkte jag att jag samtidigt kunde läsa den lättläsbara texten som småbitar däremellan. Aldrig! Först slutade jag readig och fortsatte OS, slutade sedan OS och fortsatte detta Hourly, som jag har varit tvungen att notera författaren till boken. Inte avslöjar namn, men frågar i första person en kort recension, som jag ändå skulle ha lämnat följt av betyg på fem stjärnor.
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History, Hourly. Age of Enlightenment: A History From Beginning to End (p. 2). Hourly History. Kindle Edition.